In the present study we dwell upon the circumstances under which Thessaloniki and Ioannina came under Ottoman sovereignty. These two towns were conquered by Murad II within an interval of seven months. This study is based upon Byzantine, Ottoman and Latin sources; we have also studied the information gleaned from Byzantine sources about Ottoman policies of conquest. As Thessaloniki became part of the Ottoman realm by conquest, while Ioannina did so by conforming to the Sultan to surrender, different policies were applied to the two cities. The conquests of Murad II have been studied not with the present value judgements in mind, but considering the conditions and necessities of the fifteenh century. The conquest is viewed within the framework of Ottoman conquest policies based upon on Fıkıh (the Muslim religious and legal Code).

Islam gave a new civilization to the Turks who were always great admirers of sciences. The last words of Sultan Osman to his son Orhan -"Be the supporter of the faith and the protector of the sciences"- was religiously observed. Turks also became faithful of those nations who had contributed in various fields of sciences and like the Arabs they have distinguished themselves in the science of geography. They have a definite stage in the history of this branch of knowledge and their contents are amazingly vast. Their effects are also far-reaching but their contributions are not well known to scholars as it should be.

Seventy years ago, in June 1916 to be precise, Sherif Hussein ibn Ali, the Hashemite amir of Mecca, having been encouraged by the British with vague promises of "independence for the Arabs", revolted against his suzerain, the Ottoman Sultan-Caliph, and became an instrument in the destruction of the Caliphate by Christian Powers. In the words of Robert Lacey, "his (Hussein's) movement was less an Arab revolt than an Anglo-Hashemite conspiracy", cemented by about one million pounds sterling in British gold.

This study tries to show probable linguistic and cultural kinship between the Turkish people in Asia and the Native Peoples of Americas, i.e., the north, central and south Americas. In this study, we have shown that the use of the Turkish words "ata" and "apa" for "father and ancestor" and "ana" for "mother" and their derivatives are quite common in the languages of considerable number of the Native Peoples of Americas. The study shows that these three words, i.e., "ata", "apa" and "ana" are probably among the oldest living words in the human languages. In addition, this study points out some other words, aspects of languages and cultures of some of the Native Peoples of Americas which seem to be common with the Turkish people of Asia. The purpose of this study was to indicate with evidence the presence of correlation between the languages of the Native Peoples of Americas and the Turks in Asia and hopefully to attract the attention of linguistic scholars to carry out further studies to possibly illuminate past background of both the Native Peoples of Americas and the Turks of Asia.

When the Turks made the fateful decision of embracing Islam as their religion, they became a marked people in the eyes of the Christian World, which saw that religion as a great danger to its very existence. The Turks failure, or refusal, to accept Christianity, despite the efforts of Pope Pius II, did not endear them to the Christians of the West; nor did their contribution to the Muslim cause during the great politico-religious upheaval of the Crusades. These religious wars created bitterness, hatred and hostility between Islam and Christianity, which were to last for centuries. Christendom saw Islam as a deviance, a bogey, which, it believed, aimed at eradicating the Christian heritage; and therefore the Ottoman Turks, who had espoused the cause of Islam by taking over the Caliphate, became the object of that Christian hatred and hostility.

Despite the keen interest of militia, the concept of geopolitics should not necessarily be considered as a subject matter or branch related to the militia. The emergence of geopolitics was elaborated by geographers and political geographers, and welcomed by the political scientists with interest. Whereas, military strategists had contemplated to make use of the geopolitics and, as a result of their keen interest, had contributed to its development. The interest of militia and strategists, in general, as demonstrated in geopolitics, stems from the broadening of military strategy to the extent of encompassing the world politics. Today's global strategy has been formed up, consistent with the correlations between such powers that aim at the world supremacy, and those that stand in defence against it.

The index to Richard Hovannisian's latest work: The Republic of Armenia. Volume II [From Versailles to London, 1919-1920], contains a single entry under: Dunn, Lieutenant Robert S. To anyone familiar with the role of Robert S. Dunn in Anatolian and Caucasian post World War I affairs, this cursory treatment must come as a bit of a surprise. Throughout the years 1919-1921, Dunn served as the U.S. High Commissioner, Admiral Mark L. Bristol's eyes and ears in this sensitive region, and it is no exaggeration to state that this U.S. Naval Intelligence Officer's contacts with the Bolsheviks, Armenian and Turkish Nationalist forces, and the reports he sent to Bristol based on them, were instrumental in shaping American foreign policy vis-a-vis this region during and after the period dealt with in the Hovannisian study.

Ibn al-Haytham was widely known in late medieval Europe where he was called Alhazen, the Latinized form of his first name Al-Hasan. Concerning him David C. Lindberg writes: "Alhazen was a prolific writer on all aspects of science and natural philosophy. More than two hundred works are attributed to him by Ibn abî Usaybi'a, including ninety of which Alhazen himself acknowledged authorship.

The publication of Maşat Höyük II soon after Maşat Höyük I completes the detailed account of the excavation of the palace and citadel of this important site and includes an appendix on the 1981 season which was only concluded while this volume was being published. Since the chance find of a tablet by a school teacher in 1943, now well-known as the Maşat letter, the archaeological and historical potential of the site was quickly recognised by the Turkish Historical Society and it has been particularly fortunate that Professor Özgüç has conducted excavations here since 1973.

Sarton, who was born in 1884 in Belgium, came to the United States in 1915. He gave a few lectures and courses during his first years in America, and in 1918 he became associated with the Carnegie Institution of Washington. He had already founded Isis in 1912, while in Belgium, and although its publication was interrupted during the four years of World War I, it began to reappear in the postwar years when Sarton established himself in the United States.